Lifestyle is 'a person's way of life'. In modern times wage earners can usually determine their own lifestyle. Through living in comfortable accommodation, buying nice clothes, going on holidays and driving a modern car, one could be considered to have a good lifestyle. Obviously income is the main factor in all of these. This was not the case in early nineteenth century Ulster. At that time 90% of the population lived on the land. Landlordism, religion, famine, market forces or politics determined lifestyle for everyone.

The period 1820-1914 was a time of deprivation and then economic growth in rural Ulster. Firstly, poor government structure, a weak economy, unjust laws, and the failure of the potato crop caused much hardship. This was followed by a major upturn in the economy. To explore the lifestyles of these times, I have examined how the small farmer, the farm labourer and the cottier existed. Furthermore, to uncover evidence, I decided to examine and discuss three questions: 'What factors influenced lifestyle in rural Ulster 1820-1914'; 'What were conditions really like in rural Ulster 1820-1914'; followed by 'How did the population cope in rural Ulster 1820-1914'? It is hoped this procedure will give an insight into lifestyle in rural Ulster during a crucial period.

In short, landlords monopolised the political and economic power of Ulster since the plantations and colonisation of the seventeenth century. Later, they safeguarded their position by voting for the Act of Union in 1801. This measure ensured their dominance for another 50 years. During this time the rural population had a inadequate incomes, yet everyone no matter what their religious persuasion were compelled to pay tithes to the Church of Ireland. Such impositions had a devastating effect on rural lifestyle. Also despite harvest failures in 1835 and 1837, tenants had to continue paying exorbitant rents with no security of tenure. By 1842 over £6 million from rents left Ireland to absentee landlords. Non payment in many cases meant eviction. No economy could have survived such restrictions.

Down through the years war seems to have helped the Ulster economy and peacetime brought recession. This was the case after Waterloo (1815), when prices for farm produce plummeted. This caused great concern in the farming community. Not only that, but much civil unrest had spilled over from the 1798 rebellion. More tension ensued when in 1823 Daniel O'Connell formed the Catholic Association. This was the first time Catholics became properly organised and commenced agitating for reforms. Catholic Emancipation (1829) was the outcome. Around the same time the Orange Order increased its membership rapidly and had around 20,000 yeomen in its ranks. Inflammatory speeches by Protestant clergymen led to many confrontations. The most serious were during Orange demonstrations in Garvagh (1813), Maghera (1823), and Augher (1828). Ulster was on its knees. Life was one of hardship and hopelessness for most. People felt safer in their own neighbourhoods. An acceptable lifestyle was non-existent.

Then in 1830 the linen industry collapsed. For generations, small farmers, labourers and cottiers supplemented their incomes by working looms from home. The raw material was supplied to homes and weavers got paid for the finished product. However mechanisation put a sudden end to this income. In short, new factory looms were invented. Each loom could do the work of 100 hand weavers. The result was tens of thousands in rural Ulster lost a valuable source of income. Any weavers that lived on uneconomical farms of 12 acres, or less, suffered most.

As we have seen, the rural population of Ulster was already in the depths of despair in 1845 when the famine struck. By tradition families depended greatly on the potato for food. Not only was the complete failure of the potato crop suffered, but epidemics of cholera, dysentery, typhus and smallpox appeared. Survival during these dark days received more emphasis than lifestyle.

With a constant increase in rents during and after the famine, organised land agitation commenced. In 1876 only 804 owners held almost 80% of Ulster. There were 190,973 occupiers of land of whom only 18 % had leases. Evidently evictions increased. Most notable of these were the Derryveagh evictions when in 1861 John George Adair evicted 244 people from 46 households in three days. Rural Ulster was certainly in deep distress.

In 1879 Parnell's Land War commenced. Previously, secret voting had been introduced in 1872. This alone devastated the power of the landlords. They no longer had control over how tenants voted. Commencing with the Seed Supply Act (1880), and Purchase of Land Act (1886) tenants gained some ground. The demise of Lord Leitrim (1878) in Co. Donegal and the costly episode with Captain Boycott (1880) in Co. Mayo further weakened the hold of the landlords. Around this time both Catholics and Protestants joined together at Land League meetings throughout Ulster. Eventually the unsuccessful Home Rule Bill of 1886 caused concern amongst many Protestants. This was sufficient to undo previous co-operation. Furthermore, an increased campaign of inflammatory speeches from Protestant clergymen led to more distrust and unrest.

Between 1830 and 1865 the flax spinning mill began to dominate the textile industry throughout Ulster. Comber, Seapatrick, Darkley and Bessbrook became major centres of employment. In 1850 there were only 50 power looms in Ulster. These figures rose swiftly: by 1862 there were 4108; and by 1871 there were14074. Then the steam engine began to occupy a prominent position in Ulster's industry. Previously the linen industry was confined mainly to the banks of the rivers Callan, Bann, Lagan and Sixmilewater, where there was constant water supplies to drive wheels. The invention of the steam engine opened new opportunities for the mill owners. Being no longer dependent solely on water they often relocated to the larger towns and Belfast. This increased the trend of urbanisation.

The new century brought lots of innovations and prosperity, mixed with sectarian strife. In 1912 the Home Rule Bill was again considered. This caused much concern among Protestants leading to the formation of the Ulster Volunteer Force. Home Rule was delayed due to the outbreak of the Great War in 1914. All of these factors influenced the lifestyle of the population in rural Ulster.

As previously mentioned, Ulster in the eighteenth century had a very poor government infrastructure. In reality there were few preventative measures or plans to cope with emergencies. When disaster struck the folly of this policy became apparent.

In 1838 the English Poor Law system was introduced to Ireland. The entire country was divided into Unions. Each of these areas was under the control of Poor Law Guardians . Each Union had a workhouse. These institutions were present in Ulster when the famine began. On entry families were separated and work was hard. Formerly avoided, the famine drove many to them as a last resort. This led to massive overcrowding. Then in 1847 the government openly admitted that this policy had failed and relief in future would be through the free distribution of soup. The cost of this was to be borne by the ratepayer.

Previously, in 1846 the Temporary Fever Act authorised Commissioners of Health to encourage Poor Law Boards of Guardians to set up temporary hospitals. For some unknown reason this was allowed to lapse. Instead fever patients were treated in workhouses.   Shortly afterwards the government made a further series of decisions which greatly increased the suffering. The Poor Law Act was amended to exclude from relief cottiers and their families who rented or owned one quarter of an acre or more. Many thousands had no choice but to abandon their holdings, which were often tossed by their landlord. This is one reason why cottiers and labourers suffered most.

Surprisingly 1847 provided a good grain harvest. Unbelievably, this crop was mostly exported to England. Despite starvation it became government policy not to purchase grain for relief purposes. Not only this but the government stopped the supply of soup to most districts in September 1847. These decisions meant relief was available only through the workhouse. These actions cost hundreds if not thousands of lives in rural Ulster. See figure 1 for percentage decline in Ulster Counties between 1841 and 1851.

From around 1850 urbanisation commenced in Ulster. See figure 2 for urbanisation's effect on the small hamlet of Galbolly on the Antrim Coast. The rural population declined steadily whereas Belfast and Derry saw massive increases. With this decrease in urban population, many farms became bigger and more economical. This led to prosperity for some. With the increased income for most small farmers, local suppliers were encouraged to open shops. Seeds, flour, paraffin oil, tea and sugar could be bought locally for the first time. With the farmer's income being seasonal, shopkeepers gave credit for supplies during lean times and received payment at harvest time or on fair days - see appendix 1. Railways enabled livestock and heavy goods to be easily transported. Thus a farming industry developed and the small farmer played an increasingly important role in society. All this stressed the importance of farm size for viability. Farms were no longer divided amongst the family but usually left to one son. Other members of the family were therefore compelled to emigrate leading to a further decline in the rural population. The lifestyle of the small farmer improved immensely in the last forty years of the nineteenth century.

Late nineteenth century Ulster was an unhealthy place to live, despite the rise in living standards. Diseases such as typhus, smallpox, typhoid and diphtheria paid regular visits. Archbishop Crolly of Armagh died a victim of typhus in 1849. In 1851 an Irish dispensary service was established under the control of the Poor Law Commission. It was available to all who could not afford medical attention. There were 180 dispensaries in Ulster, each with one or more medical officers. A new class within the medical profession emerged, the general practitioner. Nevertheless there were never sufficient sick beds. Sharing of beds was practised in workhouses which helped spread these diseases. Inevitably thousands perished unnecessarily due to ignorance and neglect.

As one might expect, poor conditions and tenant grievances led to an increase in crime. Shortly after the famine there were over 50 cases of agrarian outrage in the barony of Dufferyn alone. These attacks were also prevalent throughout the rest of Ulster. Landlord gamekeepers were often busy keeping hungry poachers out. Near Seaforde, Rev W.B. Forde's gamekeeper, a Mr Noctor, was murdered while protecting game. Conditions were hopelessly bad for most of rural Ulster, although the small farmer could see a decent future ahead.

As we have seen, farmers, cottiers and farm labourers had no control over their destiny before the famine. With no income most were severely restricted in a hopeless situation. Fortunately, thanks to the works of three Ulster writers, we can see how people coped in rural Ulster. William Carleton, Seamus MacManus and Patrick MacGill produced autobiographical works that give a realistic insight into their everyday life.

William Carleton (1794-1869) was a native of the Clogher Valley, Co. Tyrone. He spent his first 24 years there and then made his fame as a writer in Dublin. In his works the stories were based on real people who were his contemporaries in Co. Tyrone. He was the youngest of fourteen children of a flax dresser and small farmer. His parents spoke Irish and English equally well. In 1830 he produced a selection of essays entitled 'Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry'. In 1834 he brought out 'Tales of Ireland' which depicted his days at 'hedge' schools. In 1847 he made his only return to the Clogher Valley. Many of the locals recognised themselves in his works.

Seamus MacManus (1869-1960) was born in Mountcharles, Co. Donegal, the son of a small farmer. He qualified as a 'pupil' teacher at the age of sixteen. He taught at Enniskillen Model School and Kinawley National School, Co. Fermanagh and became principal at Glencoe about 1888. He resigned his teaching post in 1898 to seek his fortune in America. There he found almost overnight success with leading magazines of the day. His masterpiece 'The Rocky Road to Dublin' is autobiographical and gives a broad insight into life in both counties.

Patrick MacGill (1889-1951) was a native of Glenties, Co. Donegal and was the first of eleven children. After just three years schooling and at the age of twelve he set out for the hiring fair in Strabane. His book 'Children of the Dead End' describes life in Donegal, his life 'hired out' and his encounters as a migrant worker in Scotland.

Their descriptions are of a tough hard life for themselves and neighbours. All three reckoned the farm labourers got a raw deal with rough conditions and poor pay. See figure 3.

From them we learn also about a way of life, now forgotten. These works describe characters, disputes, customs, sport and pastimes in rural Ulster. Survival and sanity needed courage and humour. Nevertheless their works recall the ancient culture of music, dancing and storytelling. Often the 'half' door would be taken off and laid on the clay floor. Locals would gather for hoolies with pipers and fiddlers displaying their skills. Through these people many of the beautiful ancient Irish musical laments, such as those of O'Hampsey and O'Carolan have survived.

During this time people could not afford to buy spirits and relied mainly on poteen. This drink was very potent and used by many in rural Ulster for medicinal purposes and also to 'drown their sorrows'. Commencing in 1840, Father Theobald Matthew held massive crusades throughout Ulster to curb the increasing addiction to alcohol. Every parish in Ulster was visited: Warrenpoint in 1840; Larne in 1842; and Castlewellan in 1844. Through these many joined his Pioneer Total Abstinence Association. His campaign met with great success and led to an improved lifestyle for many.

Church going increased immediately after the famine. Large subscriptions from Irish immigrants were sent from America to build churches and church halls. Clergy formed societies to help the less fortunate and organised social events. This encouraged communities to work together with numerous beneficial effects.

Schooling provided help in creating conditions whereby children could plan a better lifestyle. In 1811 the Kildare Place Society was founded to organise non-denominational schools. This in fact entrusted the education of the poor to agencies of the Established Church. By 1830 the society was instructing some 137,639 pupils in 1,621 schools throughout Ireland and was in receipt of an annual grant of £30,000. There was much evidence of proselytising and an uneven spread of funds. See appendix 2 Areas of poor housing had high illiteracy rates. Due to this Catholics preferred to attend 'hedge' or 'pay' schools. Catholic bishops eventually organised education on a parochial basis with the help of religious orders. Christian Brothers (1820), Loretto nuns (1822), Mercy nuns (1831) and others helped found schools in many Ulster towns. However, this was found to be inadequate. Eventually the bishops negotiated with the government, which led to the formation of the National School System. These new schools were originally to be inter-denominational which led to much controversy. Disputes ensued between the churches for control in various schools. Eventually the National Schools were inter-denominational only in name. At this stage almost half of Ireland's school population was in Ulster. This played a vital role in the development of the Ulster economy. Literacy and communication skills were an important ingredient for industrial expansion.

A product of the schooling system was Siobhan Ni Luain (Joan O'Loan). Siobhan was born in Glenravel, Co. Antrim, in 1890. She was the daughter of a small farmer. Her poetic works give a picturesque account of life in the Glens around the turn of the century. Poems such as: 'The Packman', 'Stranger in the Glen', 'The Thatcher', 'Churning Day', give an interesting insight to life there. 'To the Shore' touched the heart of rural Ulster. Siobhan spent her adult years working as a civil servant in Dublin and was a regular columnist in 'Dublin Opinion'.

Moira O'Neill (Nessa Higginson) also wrote poetry about the Glens in the same era. Moira was a daughter of local gentry. Her father was Major Higginson of Cushendun. Her works also give an interesting account of life in the Glens. Poems such as: 'Sea Wrack', 'The Fairy Lough', 'Denny's Daughter', 'Cuttin Rushes', 'The Rachray Man', 'Corrymeala' also tell us about local people, their customs and way of life. Both these poets give valuable information on lifestyle in the Glens at the turn of the century. Evidence extracted from their works, suggests that the small farmers had begun to prosper.

Five members of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) were recorded in the 1851 census for Larne, Co. Antrim: George Doherty, unmarried, aged 36, born Co.Donegal; John Anderson, unmarried, aged 34, born Co.Down; Michael Little, unmarried, aged 27, born Co. Meath; James Watson, unmarried, aged 23, born Co.Roscommon; William McMattin, unmarried, aged 22, born Co.Tyrone. In the period 1816 to 1922 some 85,000 men served with the RIC and its predecessor force. Most of the members were sons of small farmers. They were trained in the Phoenix Park, Dublin, and were always posted to counties where they would not be known. Marriage was not encouraged and guaranteed immediate transfer. This force was a major factor in Irish life. It was under the control of the central government and was semi-military. Membership was often an alternative to emigration and considered a social advancement. There was strict discipline within the force and much emphasis was focused on fitness. To achieve this playing of an ancient Irish game called handball was encouraged. Many of their barracks had handball alleys. Remnants of these can presently be seen in the yards of many RUC stations. The offspring of the RIC provided schoolteachers, shopkeepers, civil servants and professional people. In general the RIC would seem to have provided much benefit to the lifestyle of the community of rural Ulster.

Prior to 1895 the work of The Congested Districts Board was confined to Donegal. Their purpose was to subsidise local crafts, amalgamate smallholdings, promote agricultural improvements, and build harbours. This scheme was extended to cover all of Ulster. Many communities benefited financially, although most of the harbours were a waste of labour and money.

Conditions for many improved after the famine, yet nineteenth century Ulster was still an unhealthy place to be. Despite the existence of dispensaries, tuberculosis became the scourge of the population. More people died from this than any other disease. In 1891 one person in six died of consumption. Unlike Britain tuberculosis remained rife in Ulster well into the twentieth century. Poor conditions in the linen industry were blamed for much of this. Eventually improvements in health care, along with major medical discoveries curbed these mortality patterns. Housing problems were eased in 1902 when Westminster passed Wyndham's Land Bill. This Bill encouraged landlords to sell their large estates. They were compensated, and tenants were offered government purchase loans. This bill provided security of tenure for many.

Introduction of organised sport proved beneficial to rural lifestyle. Interestingly, National Schools played an important role in fostering sport such as soccer and Gaelic games, although this did not materialise fully until the last few decades of the century. Much earlier, cricket had taken off in Ireland when in 1854 Ireland defeated England by 107 runs in their first international. Gradually with the help of mill owners cricket became a popular sport in the linen towns. Sion Mills, Bessbrook, Donacloney, Waringstown, Armagh and Milford had and still have cricket clubs. The first athletic club was formed at Queen's University in 1872. Rugby became popular throughout Ulster in 1870. Soccer spread rapidly in working class areas with the Football League being formed in 1874. The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) was formed in 1884 and spread its wings to every parish in Ulster. All such sports led to a better lifestyle in rural communities.

The coming of the railway was a major boost for tourism and the rural adventurer. Reliable transport was a liberating force. A widespread network of standard and narrow gauge railways emerged in Ulster between 1837 and 1911. This enabled many farm workers to visit resorts like Warrenpoint, Portrush and Newcastle, and to commute to Belfast. Besides this livestock, linen and heavy goods could be transported efficiently.

Bassett's Guide and Directory (1888) for Antrim reveals a flourishing tourist industry. Henry McNeill (founded 1854) of Larne and The Northern Counties Hotel in Portrush both took full-page advertisements. The Antrim Coast Road and the Giant's Causeway were the big attractions. Henry McNeill's advert reads:

'In connection with tourist and Mail Car services is a Posting Establishment which maintains in first-rate order 100 different machines and vehicles'.

Larne then was the equivalent of today's Fort William and Oban. Ten elaborate hotels were built, along with hundreds of lodging houses. On the Antrim Coast more hotels were established in Glenarm (2), Carnlough (2), Cushendall (3), Cushendun (4). Larne became Ireland's greatest centre for tourism. There were three reasons for this. Firstly, the Antrim Coast Road was the only scenic route in Ireland where four horses could pull thirty passengers for over thirty miles. This was due to the lack of hills on the coast road. Secondly, industrialisation of Belfast had created a wealthy middle-class with surplus income to spend on lifestyle. Thirdly, the short sea route from Stranraer to Larne attracted many tourists from Glasgow and farther afield. This boom time on the Antrim Coast had a two-fold effect on lifestyles. Firstly, thousands of jobs were created locally which improved the local economy and secondly the middle-class was provided with facilities to 'while away' their leisure hours.

Lifestyles were also enhanced from 1860 through entertainment. Travelling drama groups and circuses covered most of Ulster, with performances from playwrights such as Dion Boucicault (Coleen Bawn), and Batty's Circus. These often drew a 'full house'. In 1909 Ireland's first custom-built cinema opened. Before long they were to be found in every town playing to packed houses. Many lifestyles were enhanced through these developments, but the farm labourer could seldom afford such luxuries.

For centuries everyone in Ulster was dependent on legislation, landlords and the state of agriculture for their lifestyle. Bottom of the heap were cottiers and farm labourers. Their lot did not improve much during the period. The famine decimated this group with many dying of hunger and neglect. By 1914 there was little improvement for those who remained. Carleton's description of the farm labourer's lifestyle in 1820 was comparable in many ways to that witnessed by MacGill in 1910. Hiring fairs were still in full swing throughout Ulster in the opening decades of this century. Besides fully-grown men, young boys and girls were hired out for low wages in atrocious conditions. For them an improved lifestyle often never came.

Things were much different for the small farmer. In the latter half of the nineteenth century they gained greatly in status. Larger more viable farms, the railways, local suppliers and fairs reaped great benefits. Loans were made available to buy out their leases and adjoining land. Land ownership led to the formation of many farming societies and co-ops and thereby good economics. In short those that gained ownership of land benefited most and gained the luxury of a reasonably good lifestyle.

Remnants of those bygone days are still visible in our countryside today. For instance travel the Antrim Coast Road. This marine highway was built between 1838 and 1850, with workers often being paid often with bags of meal. Beyond Carnlough, in Turnley's Estate is a Kildare Street Schoolhouse. Further on you will pass an old dispensary. All the disused harbours you can find between Larne and Portrush were the idea of the Congested Districts Board.

The rural population of Ulster endured much. Their resourcefulness enabled them to keep going. For them attaining a decent lifestyle in such difficult circumstances was a great achievement.

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